Gomes.Murray.spring.wiki.2011

__**History**__  The quest for nuclear energy for electric power began shortly after the discovery of radioactivity in the late 19th century. Once scientists discovered that radioactive elements released insane amounts of energy, the quest began to find a way to harness the power. The scientists’ faced many problems along the way such as the short half-lives of radioactive elements and the poisonous radioactivity.

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen started the nuclear move with his discovery of the x-ray. Roentgen was born in lower Rhine providence of Germany in 1848 to an average middle class family. He moved to the Netherlands at age three where he remained for his childhood. He attended a boarding school in which he was kicked out of but he later was accepted to the Polytechnic at Zurich to study mechanical engineering after passing the entrance exam. He graduated from the institute with his Ph. D in 1869 after only four years. He spent his next few years bouncing from college to college teaching and serving as a chairman. He finally settled down in 1900 at the University of Munich where he remained for the rest of his life.

 On the night of November 8, 1895 Roentgen conducted his famous experiment where he discovered the x-ray. He called the new thing he discovered x radiation to denote its unknown nature. Roentgen noticed this mysterious light had the ability to pass thought many different materials that absorb visible light. HE also noted the important discovery that the x-ray had the ability to knock electrons from atoms.  The next major breakthrough came with Antoine-Henri Becquerel’s discovery of natural radioactivity in 1896. Becquerel was destined to become a scientist from the moment he was born science his father and grandfather were both scientists. Becquerel attended college in Paris in the years between 1872 and 1888, when he received his doctorate degree. He focused his early work on plane-polarized light and phosphoresce. All of his early work became overshadowed when he shared his discovery with the French Academy of Science on February 24, 1896. In his conclusion of the experiment he noted that the phosphorescent substance was passing some sort of ray which was passing though the paper barrier and reducing the silver. With the knowledge he had gained through Roentgen’s findings, he concluded a week later, after another experiment involving Uranium salt and potassium, that he has discovered spontaneous radioactivity.



 Later in 1896 Marie Curie made yet another major breakthrough, getting one step closer to harnessing nuclear energy. Marie was one of the pioneer female scientists in the day which women were held to household duties. She graduated college with her doctorate in science from the Sorbonne College in Paris in 1903. She assumed the position as the head of the Physics department at her Alma Mata in 1906 becoming the first women to ever hold the position. Currie’s early research was often times with her husband Pierre in their own ratty little laboratory. Her inspirations for her experiments were mainly from Becquerel’s discovery of radioactivity. Currie carefully spent years the isolation of polonium and radium. Curie developed methods for the separation of radium from radioactive residues in sufficient quantities to allow for its characterization and the careful study of its properties. She focused much of her work on the healing properties of the radioactive elements. In fact president Hoover gave Curie fifty-thousand dollars to purchase radium to continue her experiments. Curie was heavily honored for her isolation and discoveries of the two elements winning numerous awards. Marie Curie died in 1934, of what was described as an aplastic pernicious anemia, more than likely from handling radioactive materials unsafely. Scientists didn’t fully understand the effects of these materials on the body so no protective equipment or precautions were taken causing the heavy absorption of radioactivity into the body.  It was six years later and after the turn of the century for the next great breakthrough to occur. It was Earnest Rutherford’s gold foil experiment which discovered the alpha particle and the modern structure of the atom. Earnest Rutherford is a native of New Zealand, born in Nelson in 1871. He attended public schools until he turned sixteen then went to Nelson Colligate School. After being awarded a scholarship, Rutherford transferred to the University of New Zealand at Wellington. Here he earned his M.A. in both Mathematics and Physical Science. A few years later in 1897 he was awarded a research degree from Trinity College in Cambridge. From here Rutherford began his first research experiments where he studied the magnetization of iron and high frequency discharges, during his time in New Zealand. He then continued to experiment in his time at McGill in Montréal, but he was made famous for his 1910 experiment in Manchester, England. Here he performed his famous experiment where he discovered the alpha particles from Radium and discovered the number of them. He also came up with the design for the modern atom with the mass in the center due to the protons and neutrons. He was given a Nobel Prize for his work and later Knighted in 1914 and added to the order of merit in 1925.

 On September 7, 1877, perhaps the most influential man on Nuclear energy was born, Frederick Soddy. He attended Eastbourne College in his birth town, before moving on to study at the University of Whales at Aberystwyth as well as Merton College in Oxford. He was a researcher at Oxford University for two years 1898-1900. Then he crosses the Atlantic to study at McGill University in Quebec, Canada with Rutherford. Here the men discovered alpha, beta, and gamma particles, which Rutherford received the credit for. Soddy made his contribution noting that radioactive particles break down to form other particles. For example he noted that uranium decays to radium. He also discovered that the same particles can have different masses, therefor crating the term isotope. Soddy published four books and won the 1921 Nobel Prize in 1922; due to the lack of groundbreaking scientific work in 1921 it was withheld one year.

This experiment was the first experimental proof of Albert Einstein’s E=MC^2. This successful experiment marked the start of what we know now as the nuclear age. With ore refining and modernization of this experiment the nuclear power plant would be born years later. ||
 *  With the culmination of Roentgen’s, Becquerel’s, Curie’s, Rutherford’s, and Soddy’s major contributions to the field of Nuclear energy Crockroft and Walton came together in 1932 to artificially split a nucleus of an atom creating energy. The men preformed this instrumental task by bombarding Lithium with artificially accelerated protons. The following reaction occurred: ||
 * The accelerated protons impacted the Lithium producing alpha particles and energy. This meant that the mass of the lithium was converted into alpha particles and kinetic energy.

 The Manhattan Project built and tested the worlds first atomic bombs. Two were tested In Japan. Almost seventy years ago, two atomic bombs were launched at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This was to scare Japan and show that the United States is a dominant power. Once Japan declared war against the Soviet Union the United States took action and defeated Japan along with its allies. The atomic bombs ended the war in the Pacific. Once this ended the end of World War Two occurred. Other than files from the Manhattan Project these files were from the Top Secret Ultra. After many meetings Emperor Hirohito of Japan surrendered in Tokyo. The Cold War began with the United States and the Soviet Union once they detonated and tested their atomic bomb.

 Even if the dropping of Atomic bombs on Japan was right or wrong, the main focus should be on the development of nuclear post bombing. After the attacks nuclear has bloomed out in a variety of ways. Nuclear is used in the medical field, the generation of electricity, and being used as a source of power in our United States Navy. Unfortunately, it has come to fear and has developed as an improving weapon for warfare.

 Many treaties, parliaments and agreements have been made to prevent nuclear warfare. The first was the French and Chinese creating the Nuclear Club. After the threat and fear of the Cuban Missile Crisis the Non-Proliferation Treaty was created in which the countries that would agree to complete nuclear dismemberment. Later on The SALT I and the Anti-Ballistic Missile or also known as the ABM Treaties were created. After the Vietnam War there was the SALT II agreement.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> After World War II occurred, Nuclear became an arms race. The Cuban Missile Crisis and the Cold War were started by Nuclear. This was more frightening compared to World War Two because the war was started because fear of nuclear power in the opponents hands. The Cold War was influenced by Ronald Reagan calling the Soviet Union an evil empire. This led to United States producing nuclear weapons. Israel reviled that they may have had up to 200 nuclear weapons stored away. The cold war ended after many peace revolutions blew up across the Soviet Union. Nuclear disarmament was created after the Cold War. Many states gave up their nuclear weapons but India and Pakistan did not. These two countries eventually tested their nuclear weapons also.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> The nuclear also developed into a useful aid in the medical field. Nuclear medicine is yet a strong yet developing and emerging field. It uses small amounts of radioactive materials which attach to special compounds. Using imaging instrumentation that views molecular development in the body. This is used to identify many diseases particular cancer. Radiation is type of energy or visible light. Radiation is used in nuclear medicine by injecting inhalation, or swallowing radiopharmaceuticals in small amounts into the human body. These are designed to travel selected organs. A scintillation camera or a special radiation detector is used to obtain images of the injected particles into the body. Positron emission tomography or PET scans to determine and research many diseases. Relatively small amounts of radiation are given out and almost harmless to the human body. Compared to x-rays and CT scans, nuclear scans are detected from inside a pations body while all other scans are sent through the body. Nuclear scans are based on biological changes in body tissue rather than changes in anatomy. The radiation received from all other scans is around the same as nuclear scans.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 25px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Transportation has changed particular in the Navy. The United States Navy currenty has over 6200 reactor years that are accident free. There are eighty two nuclear powered ships which eleven are aircraft carriers and seventy one submarines. They are also being used in the commercial industry in ice breaking ships.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 25px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> The reason for nuclear power in the marine transportation industry is to allow vessels to be at sea for long periods of time without refueling along with powerful submarine propulsion. Most vessels that are nuclear powered are submarines. Nuclear marine propulsion started in the forties and is still used wide round.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**__Nuclear Power and Electrical Generation__**

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Imagine our very own sun a billionth of its size. Then take this replica of the sun and constrict it in a facility on our planet. Empowering this energy is the future of our world. There must be a solution to significantly reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Industrial giants, electrical power plants, and internal combustion engines are trapping in heat from global warming. Nuclear fission power plants are the largest action taken to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Although these plants consist of few flaws, nuclear fusion will rapidly become the Earth’s future source of electricity. Changing the current ethics towards the generation of electricity could save the Earth from any more destruction of global warming. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Coward stated that “our use of oil and coal to fuel cars and produce electricity we are adding some three billion tons of carbon to the atmosphere each year. This is like adding new panes of glass to the greenhouse” (14). Greenhouses on Earth are used to confine heat in an enclosed building. They permit heat to enter and prevent it from escaping. The greenhouse effect on our planet is raising the global temperatures up. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> The greenhouse effect occurs when carbon dioxide and water molecules absorb and release radiation from the sun and Earth’s surface. When these molecules absorb the suns low radiation, they shift to an excited state and release radiation towards the sun or back down to Earth. The greenhouse effects, stimulates, and flourishes life, but raising the temperature can put all living things in danger. The solutions of global warming must be made quickly. (Michaels 14; Coward 14) The fuel source used to produce electricity and movement for transportation must be changed. The more carbon dioxide we add to our unstable environment more radiation will be absorbed and pushed back down into our atmosphere therefore threatening our planet. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> “Carbon dioxide concentrations in our atmosphere were approximately 280 parts per million (ppm) from the end of the last Ice Age to the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Since then, they have risen to around 385 ppm, [an increase of 105 ppm] or a net increase of about 38 percent. In the 20th century, roughly three-fourths of the increase in atmospheric concentration took place after World War II” (Michaels 14). Internationally the main issue consists in the reduction of carbon dioxide. Everything this human race does on a daily basis consists of creating some kind of carbon emission. From either production in businesses and corporations, to transportation, all the way to the destruction of carbon dioxide diluters like plankton and plants (particular trees). Electrical production has been the leader in carbon dioxide emissions. The human race must take action in reducing these emissions. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Recently the human race has proposed many solutions to fix the carbon dioxide conflict in the electrical production field. Wind turbines, ocean current turbines, dammed water flow turbines, and solar panels have been developed to produce electricity. Although these alternative energy sources can benefit the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions they benefit and function only for a local area or company, moreover, and are not designed for large scale use. A new fuel source must be used to replace the fossil fuels power plants. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> “The first commercial nuclear power plant was built on the Ohio River at Shippingport, Pennsylvania, a city about 25 miles from Pittsburgh. It began operation in 1957” (Fanchi 67). From there on nuclear generation has developed dominance. Only under 50 years of practical use, the human race has made remarkable footsteps. Some believe that nuclear is not the path to take but different, more efficient systems is under development. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Nuclear energy is obtained by fission and fusion reactions. Nuclear fission is the process of splitting one large nucleus by making it unstable by adding a neutron. By doing this this nucleus spits into two smaller fragments creating tremendous amounts of heat. Common elements used for fusion are uranium-235 and plutonium-239. The daughter nuclei contain a tremendous amount of kinetic energy. The extra neutrons created from the fission process will repeat the process with other uranium or plutonium and create a continuous chain reaction. Control rods made of boron or cadmium is used to regulate the reaction to prevent the chain reaction from becoming uncontrollable. Control rods do this by absorbing excess neutrons before further fission can occur. Reactor core become hot from the energy released in the fuel rods. Cores are made of graphite, light water (H₂O) or heavy water (deuterium oxide) to slow down the neutrons. (Fanchi 49; Mills 77) The process of fission controlled and regulated. The heat energy produced is used to boil water and create steam. This steam cycle is used in any coal or oil electrical plant. The only difference is that there is no combustion which creates carbon dioxide which is the cause of global warming. This process is not a perfect solution to global warming but is the quickest solution. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> “The daughter products themselves are radioactive because they still tend to be neutron rich. . . and decay, releasing more thermal energy and nuclear radiation. . . These factors need to be taken into account when considering their disposal” (Mills 77). Although the two smaller elements created from splitting the larger atom create heat from their radiation, they create waste. This waste is radioactive and hazardous to our environment. Macfarlane explains that at “the end of the reactor operation, about 95 to 99 percent of the spent nuclear fuel still consists of UO₂. The rest of the material consists of fission products, activation products, and actinides. During the operation of a nuclear power reactor, nuclei of uranium-235 fission to form new elements, known as fission products.” (334) This waste is the only factor why nuclear fission is not the perfect solution to global warming. The controversial issue is what to do with this waste. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> This waste has been accumulating for the last half century, and over one hundred cites across the United States have generated this waste and unspent fuel in underground steel tanks. Commercial nuclear power plant spent fuel is stored in seventy sites in the U.S. that are above ground dry storage cacks. A solution has to be passed for the permanent disposal of this waste. (Technical Bases for Yucca Mountain Standards 15) This creates almost two-hundred individual facilities that are open for attack in this nation. Not only does this open this nation up for attack, it is filling up the spent fuel tanks at each of these plants. Once the spent fuel tanks have become full the plant will have to shut down temporarily until there is a solution of storage of this fuel. Once that will occur, carbon emission power plants will have to meet the demand of the nation’s electrical need which will enhance the negative effects of global warming. A storage facility for this spent fuel must be activated urgently before carbon dioxide emissions escalate. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Yucca Mountain is the most logical solution to nuclear spent fuel. The United States has to decide whether to use this geological deposit or not: <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The Repository System DOE [Department of Energy] plans to achieve containment and isolation of high-level radioactive waste in a proposed repository by using an engineered barrier system and locating the repository in the geologic setting of Yucca Mountain. The general repository design suggests that the waste would be emplaced in drifts (tunnels) about 300 meters (1,000 feet) beneath the land surface but above the water table of the uppermost aquifer, that is, in the unsaturated or vadose zone. By law the repository is conceptually designed to hold 70,000 metric tons of high-level radioactive waste. . . Up to 100 years after emplacement operations begin, the repository would be sealed by backfilling the drifts, closing the opening to each emplacement drift, and sealing the entrance ramps and shafts. The engineered barrier system would include the waste form (for example, reactor-fuel assemblies or high-level defense waste embedded in a glass matrix), internal stabilizers, the canister in which the waste is placed, and backfill between the canister and the adjacent host rock. (Technical Bases for Yucca Mountain Standards 15) <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Much thought, research, and effort between many political parties has been assembled this solution. Sealed off from potential contamination through the water supply and air it seems like an excellent solution. Many worry of rare occurrences and unlikely disasters that could occur from contamination leakage. Yucca Mountain’s location in the outskirts of Nevada isolates it from danger if contamination were to occur. All the United States has to do is empty these full plants from the threat of attack and create space for the nuclear fission plants to store spent fuel and continue production. This phase is only a brief transition until humans reach the ultimate source of electricity. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Hiroshima received the terrible effects of United States and Japan’s battling after World War One. Imagine the power of that bomb but in a highly secured controlled reaction. Uncontrolled fusion occurs in a hydrogen bomb. Fusion also is the energy released in the sun and many other stars. This natural process has not been commercialized for the use of electricity, but scientists expect it to contribute to the energy mix in the twenty-first century. (Mills 78; Fanchi 49) This would quickly eliminate carbon dioxide emission plants. Not only would this replace fossil fuel plants, it would outdate and replace current nuclear fission plants (both pressurized reactor and boil water reactor). The process is different from fission and provides a healthier after product. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Nuclear fusion is the joining two nuclei together to form a heavier nucleus. Using lasers, two forms of hydrogen (deuterium {H₂} and tritium {H₃}) are heated under high pressure and temperature to the point they become plasma. Once plasma the nuclei have been stripped of their electrons and are moving around rapidly. Electrostatic repulsion fails between the two hydrogen nuclei with this given environment causing them to crash into each other. When this occurs the nuclei fuse together to create Helium (He₄) and a free neutron. The fusion reaction releases much more heat energy than a fission reaction and occurs in the core of stars. (Mills 78) The process may be more complex that fission but the outcome is more beneficial and natural. Fission will rapidly become outdated once the fusion plants become available. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Uranium and plutonium used in nuclear fission reactions are large and uncommon. Uraninite is uranium found in the Earth and is mined. Uranium-235 is the isotope that undergoes fission in commercial reactors and consists of seven tenths of a percent of uraninite. It is a reserve like all fossil fuels and requires an in depth process of mining, purifying, and reprocessing. This fuel source is also a non-renewable resource. (Fanchi 62-63) Like coal and oil, uranium is a difficult and limited resource. The cost of purifying uranium-235 is a costly process due to all of the stages and intermediaries it has to pass through just to get to our power plants. Fusion uses a larger reserve. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> According to Fanchi, he states “Protons are readily available as hydrogen nuclei. Deuterium is also readily available. Ordinary water contains approximately 0.015 mole % deuterium. . . thus one atom of deuterium is present in ordinary water for every 6700 atoms of hydrogen” (65). This process involves removing the necessary nuclei out of the most common compound found on this planet. Water covers the majority of our planet and every living being has to consume in on a regular basis for survival. “We have a plentiful supply of hydrogen in water on Earth and the products are not polluting [through carbon dioxide, methane, and radiation]” (Mills 78). With a large supply of resources along with a clean product, this is the solution the world has been seeking for. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Every person on this planet would dream to have an endless time limit. In this world we do not have that option due to our constant reactions to the rushed poor decisions the past has done. We have created global warming by using fossil fuels to create electricity and energy. Now we are rushed to solve this carbon dioxide issue. Almost every issue is solved by creating temporary solutions until the center issue has dissipated. These temporary solutions may consist of pros and cons but are still beneficial to the original issue. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> In order to reduce carbon emissions from the greenhouse effect, Alternative energies must mass produce electricity. Nuclear fission has been many nations top resort to solving this issue. Although contaminated waste is a byproduct of this, permanent disposal sites of this waste are waiting for approval. Fission is the planets solution for the time being but our permanent solution to carbon dioxide emissions and electrical generation is in the near future. Soon enough facilities across the globe will be harnessing the power of the sun using fusion reactors. The future will be lighted by an reenactment of a star, resolving the effects of carbon dioxide.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Works Cited <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">"Antoine-Henri Becquerel - Chemistry Encyclopedia - Structure, Reaction, Salt, Atom." Chemistry: Foundations and Applications. Web. 02 June 2011. <http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Ar-Bo/Becquerel-Antoine-Henri.html>.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">"Cockroft & Walton Experiment." Web. 02 June 2011. <http://homepage.eircom.net/~louiseboylan/Pages/Cockroft_walton.htm>. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">"Ernest Rutherford - Biography." Nobelprize.org. Web. 02 June 2011. <http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1908/rutherford-bio.html>.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">"Frederick Soddy - Biography." Nobelprize.org. Web. 02 June 2011. <http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy-bio.html>.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Coward, Harold G., F. Kenneth Hare, and Thomas Hurka. //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ethics & Climate Change: the Greenhouse Effect //. Waterloo, Ont.: Published by Wilfrid Laurier UP for The Calgary Institute for the Humanities, 1993.14-15. //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ebrary //. Web. 6 Dec. 2010. <http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mmac/docDetail.action?docID=10147234>.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Fanchi, John R. //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Energy in the 21st Century //. Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific, 2005. 49, 62-63, 65, 67. //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ebrary //. Web. 6 Dec. 2010. <http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mmac/docDetail.action?docID=10106575>.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Michaels, Patrick J., and Robert C. Balling. //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Climate of Extremes: Global Warming Science They Don't Want You to Know //. Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute, 2009. 13-15. //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ebrary //. Web. 6 Dec. 2010. <http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mmac/docDetail.action?docID=10379650>.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Mills, Tim. //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Physics at a Glance //. London: Manson, 2008. 77-78. //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ebrary //. Web. 6 Dec. 2010. <http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mmac/docDetail.action?docID=10333061>.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Technical Bases for Yucca Mountain Standards //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">. Ed. National Research Council Staff; Committee on Technical Bases for Yucca Mountain St. Washington, D.C.: National Academy, 1995. 15, 23, 26. //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-size: 20px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ebrary //. Web. 6 Dec. 2010. <http://site.ebrary.com/lib/mmac/docDetail.action?docID=10055166>.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">"The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II: A Collection of Primary Sources." //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The George Washington University //. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 June 2011. <http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/index.htm>.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">"Nuclear Files: Timeline of the Nuclear Age." //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Nuclear Files - From nuclear proliferation to nuclear testing, from Hiroshima to North Korea, Nuclear Files offers the A to Z on nuclear issues. //. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 June 2011. <http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/timeline/html_index.htm>.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Jeanty, Jacquelyn. "Medical Uses for Nuclear Energy | eHow.com." //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">eHow | How to Videos, Articles & More - Trusted Advice for the Curious Life | eHow.com //. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 June 2011. <http://www.ehow.com/about_4674335_medical-uses-nuclear-energy.html>.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">"Beneficial Medical Uses of Nuclear Medicine and Radiation." //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Center for Molecular Imaging Innovation and Translation //. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 June 2011. <http://www.molecularimagingcenter.org/index.cfm?PageID=7083>.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">operational, 1962 the US Navy had 26 nuclear submarines, and 30 under construction. Nuclear power had revolutionised the Navy.. "Nuclear-Powered Ships | Nuclear Submarines." //<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">World Nuclear Association | Nuclear Power - a Sustainable Energy Resource //. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 June 2011. <http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf34.html>.