R.+Stacey+Time+Line+Project

wORLD EVENTS: 500-1800 1800-1875 1875-1900 1900-1915 1915-1950 1950-current (2007)
 * **600 A.D:** the **Windmill** was invented in Persia, by who is unknown.
 * **[[image:Battle_of_the_Tours.png width="212" height="226"]] Battle** **of the Tours:** In **732** B.C, Charles Martel, the Christian King of France defeated an Arab invasion coming from the North in Spain, which saved France from potential Muslim Rule.
 * **1593**: The **thermometer** was invented in Italy, by who is unknown.
 * **[[image:waterloo_battle.jpg width="260" height="199"]]1815**: The **Battle of Waterloo**: the combined forces of Britain and Prussia defeated Napoleon and brought the French Empire down.
 * **1863**: The **Battle of Gettysburg**: In this crucial battle of United States Civil War, the Union army defeated the Confederacy and began the invasion of the South.
 * **1868**: The **typewriter** is invented by Christopher L Sholes; Carlos S. Glidden and Samuel W. Soule.
 * **[[image:the_first_telephone.jpg width="192" height="241"]]1876**: **Alexander Graham Bell creates the first successful telephone**. The word telephone comes from Greek words meaning “far” and “sound”. By the end of the 20th century, more than 800 million telephones were installed in homes, schools, and offices all around the world.
 * **1888**: E.J. Marley invented the **motion-picture camera** in France.
 * **Radio**: Guglielmo Marconi invented his spark transmitter with antenna at his home in Bologna, Italy, in December **1894**.
 * **[[image:1903_world_series_poster.jpg width="156" height="230"]] 1903:** The Red Sox win the First World Series against the Pittsburg Pirates.
 * **1904:** Russo-Japanese War begins, where they compete for Korea and Manchuria.
 * **The Battle of the Marne**: At the beginning of World War I, the Allies stopped the advance of the German army outside of Paris. A line of trenches was established, where most of the war was battle from thereafter.
 * **WWI: 1914-1919**: A series of many battles, starting off with the murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Fought in Europe, the US helped Britain towards the end, but everyone felt the strain for supplies, the high death rate, and the worst impact: The Great Depression follows after all areas dig themselves into serious debt.
 * **1924**: Lenin died, and Stalin won the power struggle in Russia and rules as a Soviet dictator until he died in 1953.
 * [[image:percy_Spencer.jpg width="170" height="201"]] The **first microwave oven** was invented in **1945** by Percy Spencer.
 * **1960**: an American U-2 spy plane is piloted by Francis Gary Powers, is shot down above Russia.
 * **October 6, 1973**: the fourth and largest Arab-Israeli conflict begins as Egyptian and Syrian forces attack Israel as Jews celebrate Yom Kippur, the holiest day on our calendar.
 * **[[image:hurricane_Katrina.jpg width="264" height="191"]]August 29-30 2005**: Hurricane Katrina causes catastrophic damage on Mississippi and Louisiana, and 80% of New Orleans is flooded. All government levels are criticized because they take too long to respond to the disaster.

HISTORY OF THE ATOM

“Empedocles did not base his four-element hypothesis on any experimental evidence. He did base some other scientific ideas on experiment, however, and he showed by experiment that air existed and was not empty space. He did this with a clepsydra, a vessel with a hole in the bottom and one in the top. Placing the bottom hole of the vessel under water, Empedocles observed that the vessel filled up with water. If, however, he put his finger over the top hole, then the water did not enter the hole at the bottom but it did once he removed his finger. Empedocles correctly deduced that the air in the container prevented the water entering. Empedocles believed that light traveled with a finite velocity, not through any experimental evidence, of course, but simply through reasoning. Aristotle writes in //De sensu:// //Empedocles says that the light from the Sun arrives first in the intervening space before it comes to the eye, or reaches the Earth. This might plausibly seem to be the case. For whatever is moved through space, is moved from one place to another; hence, there must be a corresponding interval of time also in which it is moved from the one place to the other. But any given time is divisible into parts; so that we should assume a time when the sun’s rays was not as yet seen, but was still traveling in the middle space.// It is remarkable how many of Empedocles' ideas have turned out to be correct. In addition to his belief in the finite velocity of light he also developed a crude evolutionary theory based on the survival of the fittest. He also had a form of the law of conservation of energy and had a theory of constant proportions in chemical reactions. His ideas, although they had little influence on the development of science, can be seen in the light of our current scientific knowledge to be quite incredible. ” From http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Empedocles.html
 * __Empedocles__**: (495-435 BCE) born in modern day Agrigento, Sicily, Italy. He has been attributed to making many ‘first’ advancements, but is best know for his belief that all matter was composed of four elements: fire, air, water, and earth. His claim was fundamental for the development of science, and was adopted by Plato and Aristotle.

**__Democritus__** was born in Abdera, Greece and lived from 470-380 BC. He was a Greek philosopher who developed the concept of the 'atom', Greek for 'indivisible'. Democritus believed that everything in the universe was made up of atoms, which were microscopic and indestructible. Democritus had many remarkable insights for his time. He understood that the Milky Way was a large collection of stars and thought that space was limitless.

Aristotle believed that the Earth was at the center of the universe and it was made up of only four elements: earth, water, air and fire. He also believed that the sun, moons, and stars were perfect and therefore were made up of a special fifth element: ether. We know now that he was mistaken, but he paved the way for the beginnings of study and trial and error.
 * __[[image:2162787640.jpg width="105" height="143"]] Aristotle__**:was a Greek philosopher, known as the father of philosophy. From 384 to 322 BC, he made his mark as one of greatest thinkers of the world. He published many written works on all aspects of thought.

//1700-1800// __Andreas Sigismund Maraggraf__ (1709-1782): was born on March 3, 1709 in Berlin and died in Berlin on August 7, 1782. Marggraf was the last influential German chemist to believe in Phlogiston. The theory of Phlogiston was introduced by Georg Ernst Stahl, which stated that all materials were made up of air, water, and three earths, and that one of them escaped from any material when it burned. He was an important individual in chemistry as it evolved from a philosophical and speculative subject into a science in the eighteenth century. He worked on many subjects, concentrating on inorganic, organic, and analytical chemistry. He isolated several elements, made an important discovery about sugar, and was one of the first scientists to use a microscope in the field of chemistry. He also used flame tests to find the different colors substances burned, which is very similar to modern spectroscopy. He used a metal blowpipe, so that the pipe would increase the flame allowing yo to see the colors easily. When the flame went out, you could also see what kind of ashes the substance left over. Marggraf found an easy way to prepare phosphorous, even though at his time it was a rare substance: he evaporated decayed urine and combined it with salts that had chloride of lead, sand and coal in it. He found that after heating it for four hours, it became pure white and clear, and it could be poured into glass tubes. He also noted that when you burned it, it’s mass increased and it became feathery. Then when he dissolved it in water, it formed phosphoric acid, which he discovered. He also found that you could return it to its original state by heating it with coal. One of the most significant of Marggraf's findings, at least in terms of its impact on industry, was his discovery in 1747 that sugar from beets was exactly the same as sugar from cane. Before his time, efforts had been made to extract sugar from many other fruits, vegetables and even nuts. Marggraf assumed that sugar from sweet-tasting plants must contain a sugary substance, so he investigated the white beet, the beet root and the red beet. First he sliced, dried and reduced them to small particles. Next, with the use of boiling alcohol, he extracted their juice, by filtering and then letting this juice crystallize in corked tubes for several weeks as the liquid evaporated. Once the crystal stage was reached, he examined these crystals under a microscope. This was possibly the first use of a microscope for chemical use. The crystals seen under the microscope were identical to those of cane sugar. Although industrialists did not use the beet to mass-produce sugar, Marggraf recognized that his discovery was very significant. Previous to this time, sugar had been to England and other places in Europe from the West Indies, which made it very expensive. There were also shrotages during wars, specifically in the Napoleonic Wars at the end of the eighteenth century.

__Amadeo Avogadro (born in 1776):__ was born in Turin, Italy in 1776 and died on the July 9, 1856 just outside of Italy. He was an Italian Chemist who used gases to develop the idea of atoms and molecules in 1811.The value of a mole, 6.02x1023 is known as Avagadro's number. Avogadro suggested that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules, which is now known as Avogadro's Principle. The work of Avogadro was almost completely neglected until it was forcefully presented by **Stanislao Cannizarro** at the Karlsruhe Conference in 1860. He showed that Avogadro's Principle could be used to determine not only molar masses, but also, indirectly, atomic masses. The reason for the earlier neglect of Avogadro's work was probably the deeply rooted conviction that chemical combination occurred by virtue of an affinity between unlike elements. After the electrical discoveries of Galvani and Volta, this affinity was generally ascribed to the attraction between unlike charges. The idea that two identical atoms of hydrogen might combine into the compound molecular hydrogen was abhorrent to the chemical philosophy of the early nineteenth century. From: http://www.bulldog.u-net.com/avogadro/avoga.html

__Antoine Lavoisier__: was born in 1743, and died in 1794. He was a French chemist who is often called the father of modern chemistry. Lavoisiers most important contribution to science was his explanation of the chemical basis of fire. He observed that when the chemical elements sulfur and phosphorus are burned, they increase in weight. Lavoisier also made the fundamental discovery that water is made of hydrogen and oxygen. To broadcast his ideas, in 1789 he published a textbook, //Traité Élémentaire de chimie//, and began a journal, //Annales de Chimie//, which carried research reports about the new chemistry almost exclusively.

//1800-1875:// __Humphrey Davy (born in 1788):__ was born on December 17, 1778 in Penzance, Cornwall, England and died on May 29, 1829 in Geneva, Switzerland. As a young child, Humphry Davy became an apprentice to a surgeon-apothecary. Davy's most important investigations were devoted to electrochemistry. He soon found that when he passed electrical current through some substances, these substances decomposed, (a process later called electrolysis). In 1813, Sir Humphrey Davy created a giant battery made of 2,000 pairs of plates, which took up 889 square feet. The intensity of its effect, or the voltage generated was directly related to the reactivity of the electrolyte within the metal. Evidently, Davy understood that the actions of electrolysis and of the voltaic pile were the same. His work led him to propose that electrical forces hold the elements of a chemical compound together. At first, he tried to separate the metals by electrolyzing water-like solutions of the alkalis, but this only gave up hydrogen gas. Then, he tried passing current through molten compounds, and his determination paid off when it allowed him to separate small balls of pure metal with it. His first successes came in 1807 with the separation of potassium from molten potash and of sodium from common salt. He described potassium as particles which, when thrown into water, "skimmed about excitedly with a hissing sound, and soon burned with a lovely lavender light." Through electrolysis, Davy eventually discovered magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium in 1808. Davy utilized the reducing power of potassium to prepare boron, and he developed the method of separating potassium from sodium based upon the insolubility of potassium perchlorate and the solubility of sodium perchlorate in 97% alcohol.

__Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848)__: was one of Humphry Davy's contemporaries and rivals. Like Davy he became an accomplished experimenter in the field of electrochemistry. In preparing a chemistry textbook in Swedish for his medical students (//Lärboki Kemien//, vol. 1, 1808), Berzelius began the series of experiments for which he made him famous – when de definitively established that the elements in inorganic substances are bound together in definite proportions of weight. His further interest led him to his discovery of many new elements, including cerium, selenium, and thorium. His students also lithium, vanadium, and several rare earths. Using his experimental results, he determined the atomic weights of nearly all the elements then known. Dealing with so many elements in so many compounds motivated his creation of a simple and logical system of symbols—H, O, C, Ca, Cl, and so forth—which is basically the same as the system we use today, except that the combining proportions of the atoms of elements in a compound were indicated as superscripts instead of our subscripts.

The small, spherical model of the atom: In 1808, John Dalton introduced a visual to coincide with the concept that the atom is a small, spherical, indivisible, indestructible object. __John Dalton__ (1808) John Dalton's birth was not recorded in the family Bible, but according to relatives, it was September 5, 1766 in Cumberland, England, and he died on July 27, 1844 of a stroke in Manchester. The **Law of Definite Proportions** and the **Law of Multiple Proportions** were well accepted by 1808, at which time **John Dalton** published his //New System of Chemical Philosophy.// He had four main theories: 1) All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible. Although we later proved this false. 2) All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties 3) Compounds are formed by a combination of 2 or more different properties. 4) A chemical reaction is a re-arrangement of atoms -he made an element set and found that the weight of Hydrogen was 1, which is correct. -200 years ago he found the structure of water.

//1875 to 1900:// __Sir William Crookes:__ was born in London on June 17, 1832 and he died in London on April 4, 1919. In 1861, he was conducting a spectroscopic examination, (Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between radiation (electromagnetic radiation, or light, as well as particle radiation) and matter) of the residue left in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, he observed a bright green line which had not been found before, and by further researching the line, he succeeded in isolating a new element, thallium, a specimen of which was shown in public for the first time at the exhibition of 1862. Next, he stepped into his famous research on the incident produced by the discharge of electricity "Crookes' tubes" and to the development of his theory of "radiant matter" or matter in a "fourth state", which led up to the modern electronic theory. In 1883 he began an investigation into the nature and constitution of the rare earths. By repeated fractionations he was able to divide yttrium into distinct portions, which gave different spectra when exposed in a high vacuum to the spark from an induction coil. He considered this due to the splitting of the yttrium moleculeinto its components. He then dared to conclude that the “simple bodies” were really compound molecules and that an evolving process called “protyle” produced all elements.

__Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen:__ was born on March 27, 1845, at Lennep in the Lower Rhine Province of Germany, and died at Munich on February 10, 1923. In 1886, he put a box around the Crookes Tube, and got rid of as much light as possible. Then, he put a coated plate with barium platinocyanide every two meters away, and it glowed. He also put his wife’s hand in front of a photographic plate and it had a picture. The idea became a sensation and all scientists stopped their experiments to test his idea. Wilhelm Rontgen was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1901.

__Henri Becquerel:__ was born in Paris on December 15, 1852. In 1896, he discovered natural radioactivity while working on previous ideas. This was after Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered X-rays. Henri thought that maybe the vacuum tube and x-rays had a connection to natural phosphorescence. He took uranium salts, and when he put them on opaque paper, the paper became foggy. He did this with all uranium salts and had the same results, meaning that all uranium shared that particular property. He later found that uranium rays were different than x-rays, because uranium rays deflected electric and magnetic fields. These discoveries gave him half of the Nobel Peace Prize for Physics in 1903, sharing the other half with Pierre and Marie Curie for their further study of ‘Becquerel radiation’. Antoine Henri Becquerel died at Le Croisic on August 25, 1908.

The plum pudding model, introduced by J.J. Thomson, stated that the atom had a positive substance inside, with negative plums (electrons) floating around in the liquid. __J.J. Thomson:__ was born in Cheetham Hill, Manchester, England in 1856 and died on August 30, 1940. Thomson published his //Treatise on the Motion of Vorted Rings//, which won him the Adams Prize in 1884. He introduced the plum pudding model of the atom, which stated that there were negative 'plums' floating around, and the pudding around them was a positive substance. His most important discovery was in 1897, when he was using glowing tubes and electricity to explore into the inside of the atom. Using the labs at Cambridge University, he was putting electricity rays into empty glass tubes. He was trying to crack the puzzle of “cathode rays”. His results from the experiments provoked him to make the daring assumption that the rays were streams of particles, which were smaller than the atom, that they in fact made up atoms and all matter. Of course this was contrary to common belief, because they thought atoms were indivisible and indestructible. John Joseph was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1906.

//1900 to 1915:// __Marie Curie:__ was born in Warsaw on November 7, 1867 and died in Savoy, France, after a short illness, on July 4, 1934. She helped discover radiation. In 1902, She, with her husband took pitchblende, which had radioactive components, and separated it to find what was more radioactive. While doing so she discovered two new elements. For every seven tons of pitchblende, she found one gram of radium, which meant that she had to slowly separate everything. She also found that radium was warm to the touch since the atoms were always breaking down. She and her husband worked together, and won half of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903, sharing the other half with Henri Becquerel.

__Ernest Rutherford__: was born on August 30, 1871, in Nelson, New Zealand and he died in Cambridge on October 19, 1937. He completed the gold foil experiment in 1909, where he shot alpha particles into gold foil. Most of the time the particles went right through. But, he found that for every 10,000 particles released, one bounced back. This made him realize that the matter in the 'pudding' was spread out, and the atom had a very dense, positively charged core in the middle, which allowed a few particles to bounce back. This experiment introduced the planetary atomic model, the process of splitting an atom, and it was the first nuclear chemical experiment.

Also reffered to as the Rutherford-Bohr model, the planetary model follows the concept that all electrons revolve around the nucleus in the middle. Also, the idea that the path of the electron is fixed was introduced with this model (Bohr). __Niels Bohr (1913):__ **Niels Henrik David Bohr** was born in Copenhagen on October 7, 1885 and he died in Copenhagen on November 18, 1962. He thought that (maybe) the path of the electron was fixed- (planetary model). He said that electrons are energy shells in very certain places. Also, you can zap them, but they will always go back to their original position. For hydrogen, he said that the energy, when zapped, would come out in light, in the colors of red, blue, violet and purple. In order to keep the electrons far away from the core 'up', you had to keep giving it energy boosts. He and Rutherford shared the planetary model of the atom. Niels Bohr was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922.

//1915 to 1950:// __Robert MIllikan:__ **Robert Andrews Millikan** was born on the 22nd of March, 1868, in Morrison, Ill. (U.S.A.) and he died on the 19th of December, 1953, in San Marino, California. He figured out what electricity looked like, he suspended oil droplets (1910), by giving them the charge of gravity. He also zapped them with x-rays, which changed their charge. He said that the constant for electrons was 1.602x10*-19. Robert MIllikan was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1923.

__Werner Heisenberg__:**Werner Heisenberg** was born on 5th December, 1901 in Würzburg and he died on February 1, 1976. Werner Heisenberg discovered the uncertainty principle, which states that the observer of waves of light, for example can never know the location and the speed of the waves at the same time, we would only know one definitively, and would have to make an educated guess for the other. Mr. Hiesenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1932.


 * [[image:electron_cloud.jpg]]The Electron Cloud Model**: The electron cloud model was introduced by Erwin Scrodinger. He developed a probability function, which describes a region where electrons can be found. It is an educated guess, giving you a ‘cloud’ of where it will be within. This cloud model shows where the electron has been and will be, and the locations specified by Schrödinger were where Bohr posted his electrons in the atom. The following model illustrates that concept for you.

__Erwin Schrodinger__: **Erwin Schrödinger** was born on August 12, 1887, in Vienna and died on January 4th, 1961in Vienna. Erwin Schrödinger used Niehls Bohr’s ideas, and built off of them, while taking them to the next level. He developed a probability function, which describes a region where electrons can be found. It is an educated guess, giving you a ‘cloud’ of where it will be within. This cloud model shows where the electron has been and will be, and the locations specified by Schrödinger were where Bohr posted his electrons in the atom. Discovered that when you are given energy and momentum, you can use **f** for frequency, **E** for energy and **y** for wavelength and can find the wave frequencies. This also told him that the frequency of a wave depended on the atom or molecule is bound to an electron, like strings on a guitar, because depending on how tight or loose, you can only support certain frequencies. This supported the properties of waves in matter. Erwin Schrodinger was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1933.

__James Chadwick (1932):__ James Chadwick worked in amny different schools alongside Mr. Rutherford. He joined him where they succeded in chanigng the light of elements by shooting alpha particles into them, and continuing to sdtudy the nuclei of the atom. In 1932, Chadwick discovered the nuetron, which are the nuetral particles in atoms. His discovery helped pave way for the fission of uranium 235 and the atomic bomb. For this is was awarded the Nobel prize for Physics in 1935. From 1943 to 1946 he worked in the United States as Head of the British Mission attached to the Manhattan Project for the development of the atomic bomb.

Informational Websites: “© 2007 Pearson Education, publishing Infoplease. 21 October 2007. 

© 2000–2007 Pearson Education, publishing as Infoplease. 21 Oct. 2007 http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0903598.html.

//All comments and queries to Chris Johnson, the originator of these pages.// //This page last modified 4th July 2004//. 21 October 2007. 

21 October 2007. JOC/EFR © May 2000. 

J.J. Thomson Biography. 21 october 2007Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1906. The Official Web Site of the Nobel Foundation [|Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007].  Robert Millikan Biography. 21 october 2007Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1906. The Official Web Site of the Nobel Foundation [|Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007].  Henri Bequerel Biography. 21 october 2007Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1906. The Official Web Site of the Nobel Foundation [|Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007].  James Chadwick Biography. 21 october 2007Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1906. The Official Web Site of the Nobel Foundation [|Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007].  Werner Heisenberg Biography. 21 october 2007Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1906. The Official Web Site of the Nobel Foundation [|Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007].  Erwin Schrodinger Biography. 21 october 2007Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1906. The Official Web Site of the Nobel Foundation [|Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007].  Marie Curie Biography. 21 october 2007Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1906. The Official Web Site of the Nobel Foundation [|Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007].  Wilhelm Rontgen Biography. 21 october 2007Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1906. The Official Web Site of the Nobel Foundation [|Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007].  Niels Bohr Biography. 21 october 2007Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1906. The Official Web Site of the Nobel Foundation [|Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007].  “A look inside the Atom.” 21 October 2007. [|© 1997- 2007 American Institute of Physics].  Sir William Crookes. Copyright ©2007 Soylent Communications. 21 October 2007.  The New Book of Knowledge Encyclopedias-world events
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Ms. Stacey this is coming along well! Dr. Reich